Synthesis Article

  Introduction

Reading comprehension is one of the language skills that Indonesians need to learn at school. This is because knowing reading has become something important and indispensable for students due to the success of students who rely primarily on their reading ability. If there is a lack of comprehension of students reading, there is the risk of learning failure or at least students would have trouble making progress (Somadayo, Nurkamto, & Suwandi, 2013).

Reading has major advantages as reading will extend one's horizons and awareness (MS & Rachmadtullah, 2018). Reading needs to be introduced before kids join formal education institutions as early as possible (Wigfield, Gladstone, & Turci, 2016). Students are required to obtain various knowledge, including material, through reading, and to understand the significance of reading. The reality that can be seen so far is the students' poor reading skills as there are still a lot of lazy students to learn or the little interest in reading students (Hahnel, Goldhammer, Naumann, & Kröhne, 2016). Wendy and Scoths (1994) clarified that providing them the appropriate resources is a very effective way to help the students function safely and independently. One of the methods is vocabulary in the classroom. When we learn a language we need four language skills to communicate in full. We usually learn first to listen, then to speak, then to read, and finally to write.

Reading is a dynamic undertaking and a remarkable accomplishment, as a century of work has shown (Afflerbach & Cho, in press; Huey, 1908; RAND Reading Study Group, 2002). Reading has been characterized at different historical times by referring to particular competencies such as reading the Bible, recognizing direc364 tions, or answering questions about a text. More recently, strategies have been employed to describe reading aspects involving intentional control and deliberate behavioral direction Today, like other teachers and scholars, we use the terms skills and techniques, both formally and informally, to define aspects of the growth of children's reading as well as aspects of teacher reading instruction (Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Since at least 50 years, the term reading skills has been used in lecture curricula since teachers and K–12 students. By comparison, the word strategies became common in the 1970s to mean the cognitive aspects of the processing of information Instead of reconciling the gaps between skills and approaches, they were actually grouped together by scholars, educators and publishers to be systematic. This phenomenon seems to be an act of convenience, rather than a method of theory. There are three key causes of ambiguity in our experiences: numerous colloquial uses, insufficient interpretations and the incoherent usage of informal documents.

 Discussion

The Importance of Reading Fluency

Reading Fluency Fluent's Value consists of three main elements: accurate reading of the related text at a conversational pace with correct prosody or speech (Hudson, Mercer, and Lane, 2000). After long periods with no practice, a fluent reader can sustain this output for long periods of time can retain the ability, and can generalize through texts. A fluent reader is also not easily disturbed and reads in a flowing and effortless way. The strong correlation between reading fluency and reading comprehension is the most persuasive reason to focus on teaching students to become fluent readers (Allington,  1983;  Johns,  1993; Samuels, 1988; Schreiber, 1980). Every feature of fluency has a strong connection to the comprehension of texts. Without accurate reading of words, the reader will have no access to the intended meaning of the author, and incorrect reading of words can lead to misinterpretation of the text. Bad automaticity in reading words or sluggish, laborious movement through the text taxes the capacity of the reader to create a continuous understanding of the text. Poor prosody may lead to confusion through inappropriate or meaningless word groupings, or through inappropriate expressive applications.

Knowledge and Teaching Methods

Readers tought to learn something about linguistics, psychology, sociology, biology, education, and so on, and be able to explain the target language with adequate precision, but teachers are also required to learn a range of teaching methodologies, appropriate study ways, and some clear learning principles. The lecturer must understand that when dealing with different teaching materials and when meeting students of varying levels of English proficiency, lecturers must follow different approaches. To achieve this aim, the lecturer must enrich English knowledge and develop English skills of the educators through various means such as listening to English-language programs, watching English TV programs and regularly browsing the English versions of various news items on the Internet. Within a term, within order to develop the oral skills of students, lecturers will find every possible way to become walking encyclopedias so that lecturers can teach something with ability and ease to every student.

Correlation of Reading Fluency and Reading Comprehension

The study describes reading fluency meanings as "... the ability to read text easily, accurately, and with the proper language." All three dimensions seem critical of a complete concept of fluency in reading (Dowhower, 1991). The fact that only through oral reading can be measured two of the three dimensions of fluency, precision, and expressiveness may have led to the small amount of attention that fluency has provided until recently. Fluency was seen primarily as a phenomenon of word recognition and oral reading, and the value of oral reading pales significantly in contrast with that of silent reading comprehension. Except, perhaps as early readers in school, lecturers spend the tiny amount of time doing verbal oral reading relative to silent reading comprehension. The Literacy Dictionary: On the other hand, the Vocabulary of Reading and Writing describes fluency as "problems of independence from word recognition that may impede comprehension" (Harris and Hodges, 1995).

Samuels, a pioneer in research and reading fluency theory, cites the modification and expansion of the fluency model to include reading comprehension as a major factor in elevating the significance of the model in the field of re a ding. He states, "In order to have a good understanding of reading, the reader must be able to recognize word s quickly and easily" (Samuels, 2002). A large-scale study of data from the National Evaluation of Educational Success in Reading clearly identified the connection between fluency and reading comprehension (Pinnell, et al., 1995). In that study, 44 percent of participants were found to be diffluent in reading grade-level materials that they had previously read silently; the study also showed an important, positive relationship between fluency in oral reading and success in reading comprehensions. A detailed description will then seem to link the centrality of fluency to the comprehension of reading and the construct's defined dimensions. Educators would propose the following definition: Reading fluency refers to swift, reliable, accurate word recognition skills that enable a reader to construct the meaning of the text. Fluency often occurs in correct, quick, verbal oral reading and is implemented in the process of reading, making it possible to understand the silent reading. Constructions of Reading Fluency Though discussion of the construct of reading fluency is found as early as in Edmund Huey's classic 1908 publication (Chard, Vaughn, & Tyler, 2002), most fluency discussions trace it to the 1974 seminal article by Le Berge and Samuels as modern theoretical foundations.

The reader can not concentrate attention on both processes such that reading can continue quickly and effectively. Like many beginning readers who have not yet acquired automatic decoding skills, the non-fluent reader will alternate attention between the two processes. Constructing meaning which involves putting words into meaningful units of thought, making inferences, relating information derived from the text with background knowledge and critically responding to the meaning. To readers who must alternate between attending to the decoding of words and the development of meaning, reading is a slow, laborious, wasteful, counterproductive, and often punishing method. If the limited attention and cognitive capacity is drained by the processing of decoding words, little or no capacity is available for the attention-demanding process of constructing and responding to the meaning of a text. Hence, decoding fluency automaticity is important for high read achievement rates. Keith Stanovich (1986) also contributed greatly to elevating the value of reading fluency in a classic article in which he suggested a reciprocal relationship between fluency and the amount of reading in which a reader engages. Readers who have gained some fluency are more likely to indulge in more substantial amounts of reading than readers who lack fluency. The latter would find it hard and laborious to read. However, Stanovich goes on to point out that readers develop in all those skills that lead to fluency and fluency itself as a result of engaging in vast amounts of reading. Non-fluent readers who avoid re a ding fall further and further behind.

Fluency has also been related to theoretical constructs of how reading precedes through developmental stages. Kuhn and Stahl (2000) summarize how the development of fluency is linked to the stages of development defined by Chall (1996) and by Ehri (1995). Chall’s is a broad theoretical formulation that describes several stages of reading comprehension development besides to decoding; therefore educators will focus on Ehri’s theory, which focuses on decoding through a stage of fluency development. In line with the theory of automaticity and the definition of fluency educators have proposed, Ehri (1998) has noted, “Being able to read words by sight automatically is the secret to the professional reading of the text. This helps readers to process words in the text quickly, without attention drawn to the word itself”. Ehri has developed a carefully researched, an elegant theory of how readers systematically progress in stages from being non-readers to the point where they can recognize words effortlessly. Readers at the Pre-alphabetic Stage of Development have no understanding of the alphabetic theory that in languages like English, A systematic relationship exists between the limited number of language sounds (about 40 in the case of English) and the language's graphic forms, or letters. At this stage children at-tempt to translate the unfamiliar visual forms of print into familiar oral language through some visual clue that is part of the print. For example, children may remember the printed word monkey by associating the descending shape of the last letter of the word with a monkey's tail. approach and quickly leads to con-fusion since  my,  pony,  honey,  and  many  other  words  would  also  be  read as  monkey based on the selected visual clue. At the Partial Alphabetic Stage of Development, readers have latched onto the notion that there is a relationship between the letters and sounds and begin to use that insight. However, their ability to deal with the complexity of the sounds of word s results in an incomplete use of that relationship. Therefore, they prefer to concentrate on the most salient, easiest parts of a word to deal with and, consequently, use initial and, later, final letters as the keys to a written word's pronunciation. For example, if readers at this stage of development are taught that the letter sequence g-o is the word go, they may focus just on the g and the sound it represents to identify the word. However, using this strategy of focusing on the first letter, the letter sequences give, get, gone, and gorilla might also, in-correctly, be identified as go. While children at this stage of development will make errors in identifying words, they are in a position to make progress since they have developed the insight that the letters of a printed word are clues to the sounds of the word. As children become more familiar with the forms of printed letters, are able to analyze the sounds that compose words, and become increasingly familiar with the sounds that letters are likely to represent, they move into the Alphabetic Stage of Development. Now, even though they may never have seen it in print before, if they know the sounds commonly associated with the letters b-u-g, they can think about the sounds for eachof the letters and blend them together to arrive at the pronunciation of the word bug. Ehri’s theory then indicates that as a result of encountering the printed word bug several times, as few as four times according to a widely cited study (Reitsma, 1983), they come to accurately and instantly identify the word bug without attending to the individual letters, sounds, or letter-sound associations. Ehri (1998) describes skilled reading in the following way: “Most of the words are known by sight. The reading of sight is a rapid acting process. The term sight indicates that sight of the word activates that word in memory including information about its spelling, pronunciation, typical role in sentences, and meaning”. This instant, accurate, and automatic access to all these dimensions of a printed word is the needed fluency that will allow readers to focus their attention on comprehension rather than on decoding. It is important to note that the theory and work of Ehri suggest that this quick, instant recognition contributes to the careful processing of print in the completely alphabetic stage. Partial alphabetic readers store in-complete representations of words and, therefore, confuse similar words such as were, where, wire, wore, etc. However, once the word form is fully processed, with repeated encounters of the word, it is recognized instantly. As readers gain skill in processing print, they move into the Consolidated Alphabetic Stage of Development and also develop another valuable attention-saving decoding skill.In addition to storing words as units, repeated encounters with word s allow a reader to store letter patterns across different words. Using Ehri’s example, the multi letter unit ‘est’ will be stored as a consolidated unit as a result of reading the words nest, pest, rest, test, vest, and west. Upon encountering the word chest for the first time, a consolidated alphabetic reader would need to connect only two units: chand est, rather than the five units that the fully alphabetic reader would need to combine. As noted, while this approach to reading a word is faster than combining the individual phonemes, it is not as quick and accurate as recognizing the word from the sight.

Modeled Reading

One way of enhancing fluency is for teachers to read students aloud (Dowhower, 1987; Hoffman, 1987; Smith, 1979). The student reading aloud process needs to be complemented with interventions that actually involve students in text interaction, but reading aloud provides them with a model of how to speed reading in linked text and how to infuse speech (attend dialog marks and punctuation). Taped or computer-modelled reading is also a viable way to promote fluency. However, taped or computer-modeled reading is more effective than no model for younger and less competent readers but not as effective as a teacher model (Daly and Martens, 1994). An additional advantage of making text read initially by a sample increased comprehension for lesser performing readers. It would appear that the reading model initially required students to concentrate on the substance of the passage before reading it in-dependently (Monda, 1989). Although it varies from study to study whether students followed along in copies of the texts, experts suggest this as a way to include children individually in the text before reading it.

Conclusion

The findings in this research are that the Guided Reading Thinking Activity's learning reading technique has more control over reading, writing, speaking, dreaming, reciting, and evaluating comprehension skills writing techniques. This is demonstrated by the average score of students 'reading comprehension skills from high critical thinking classes using the Guided Reading Learning Activity reading technique that is higher than the students' average reading comprehension ability score using Overview, Query, Interpret, Reflect, Recite and Review techniquesDriven Reading Learning Exercise is the most appropriate reading method used to develop reading comprehension skills for students. The Guided Reading Learning Activity reading strategy can be used in groups of students who have high critical thinking skills. In groups of students with low critical thinking skills, strategies to read the Guided Reading Learning Exercise and Preview, Ask, Interpret, Analyze, Repeat and Review can be used. Since the average reading comprehension score of students who have poor critical thinking skills using the reading technique Guided Reading Learning Behavior is lower than the reading preview technique, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review, it cannot be proven statistically but significantly.

Afflerbach, P., & Cho, B. (in press). Identifying and describing constructively responsive comprehension strategies in new and traditional forms of reading. In S. Israel & G. Duffy (Eds.), Handbook of reading comprehension research. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Allington, R.L. (1983). Fluency: The neglected reading goal. The Reading Teacher, 36, 556–561

Dowhower, S.L. (1987). Effects of repeated reading on second-grade transitional readers’ fluency and comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 389–406.

Hahnel, C., Goldhammer, F., Naumann, J., & Kröhne, U. (2016). Influencets of linear Reading, basic computer skills, evaluating online information, and navigation on reading digital text. Computers in Human Behavior, 55, 486–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.042.

Hudson, R.F., Mercer, C.D., and Lane, H.B. (2000). Exploring reading fluency: A paradigmatic overview. Unpublished manuscript, University of Florida, Gainesville.

MS, Z., & Rachmadtullah, R. (2018). Constructivism approach in learning to write narrative at elementary school. 1st International Conference on Innovation in Education (ICoIE 2018), 287–290. https://doi.org/10.2991/icoie-18.2019.64.

Paris, S.G., Wasik, B.A., & Turner, J.C. (1991). The development of strategic readers. In R. Barr, M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 609–640). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Scotts, & windy. (1994). Teaching English to children. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.

Somadayo, S., Nurkamto, J., & Suwandi, S. (2013). The influencet of learning model DRTA (Directed Reading Thingking Activity) toward students’ reading comprehension ability seeing from their reading interest. Journal of Education and Practice, 4(8), 115– 123

Wigfield, A., Gladstone, J. R., & Turci, L. (2016). Beyond cognition: Reading motivation and reading comprehension. Child Development Perspectives, 10(3), 190– 195. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12184.